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Quantum Artificial Intelligence:
Consciousness-driven bio-computer
with quantum interference-controlled BMIVLSI implemented in cranial nerves
Physicist Brain Scientist Visiting Professor of Physics,
California Institute of Technology
Ph.D. & Dr. Kazuto Kamuro
AERI：Artificial Evolution Research Institute
1200 East California Boulevard Pasadena, California 91125
Part1
●Quantum effects in the brain
While the weirdness of quantum theory has lent itself to some unhelpful pseudoscientific interpretations of consciousness, there has been resistance from scientists to yoke the two together.
Just because both subjects are difficult to understand, does not mean that they necessarily inform each other. Despite this, the first detailed theory of quantum consciousness emerged in the 1990s from the Nobel-prize winning University of Oxford physicist Roger Penrose and anaesthesiologist Stuart Hameroff from the University of Arizona (Mathematics and Computers in Simulation 40 453).
Their “orchestrated objective reduction” (Orch OR) theory has undergone a number of revisions since its inception (Physics of Life Reviews 11 39), but generally it posits that quantum computations in cellular structures known as microtubules have an effect on the firing of neurons and, by extension, consciousness.
The theory elicited a number of criticisms but perhaps the most damning followed from the fundamental tenets of quantum theory. A quantum system – which might refer for example to the dynamics of a photon – is a delicate thing. Conventionally, quantum effects are observed at low temperatures where this system is isolated from destructive interactions with its surrounding environment. This would seem to exempt quantum effects from playing any role in the mess and fuss of living systems. Biological systems, such as the brain, operate at physiological temperatures and are unavoidably bound to their environments. As calculated by physicist Max Tegmark at Princeton University in 2000, quantum effects would not survive long enough to have any influence on the much slower rates at which neurons fire (Phys. Rev. E 61 4194).
However, this objection has to some extent been mitigated by research done in the broader field of quantum biology. The application of quantum theory in a biological context has had most success with regards to photosynthesis but research on the avian compass, olfaction, enzymes and even DNA also suggest that quantum effects might be implicated more generally in the functioning of biological organisms.
In a trivial sense all biology is quantum mechanical just as all matter is quantum mechanical – it is made up of atoms and thus subject to the physical laws of atomic structure first formalized by Bohr at the beginning of the 20th century. The focus of quantum biology, however, is on key quantum effects – those quantum phenomena that seem to defy our classical imaginations, such as superposition states, coherence, tunnelling and entanglement (see box “Quantum phenomena”).
If this is the what of quantum effects in the brain, the where is more straightforward. The brain is made up of nerve cells – elongated cells consisting of a cell body, dendrites and axon (figure 1). Put simplistically, information is passed to and from the brain by the firing or not firing of neurons, a process determined by a nerve cell’s electrochemical potential. This potential depends on the spread of charged ions across the cell membrane, making either side of the membrane more or less positive. In order for a nerve to fire, its resting potential must be increased to the requisite threshold potential. How this signal then passes from one cell to the next is still a matter of debate, but the accepted theory is that this neural communication is managed by chemicals known as neurotransmitters released into the synaptic cleft, which then bind to receptors of the next nerve cell, thereby altering its electrochemical gradient and causing neural activation.
Figure1
Figure1 shows 1 The structure and function of a nerve cell. Quantum effects in the brain might be better phrased as quantum effects in neural processes, for which this diagram of a nerve cell serves as illustration. Nerve cells consist of three main elements – the cell body, which contains the various organelles; dendrites, which receive incoming signals; and the axon, which transmits this signal. It is thought that signals are passed between nerves where the axon terminal of one nerve cell meets the dendritic spines of the next, at the synaptic cleft. As a signal moves through a nerve cell and reaches the axon terminal, it triggers the release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft.
Neurotransmitters bind to receptors on the neural membrane of dendritic spines, opening ion channels and thus altering the next cell’s membrane potential, passing along the signal.
Nerve constituents that are important to a discussion of quantum effects are the microtubules, which are formed from the polymerization of a protein known as tubulin, and the mitochondria, often described as the energy centres of the cell. Microtubules give structure to the cellular cytoskeleton and are necessary for cell division as well as the movement of motor proteins, a group of proteins that convert chemical to mechanical energy. The mitochondria use electron transport chains and proton gradients to create adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which powers biological processes. They are also the proposed primary site of biophoton production. (Illustration by Angela Illing. Reproduced from AVS Quantum Sci. 2 022901, with the permission of the American Vacuum Society)
part2
●Quantum interference effects at the root of generating consciousness in the brain
What better way to study consciousness than by looking at it in altered states – specifically the chemicals that achieve this, such as general anaesthetics. “The only thing we are sure about consciousness, is that it is soluble in chloroform,” said quantum biologist Luca Turin of the Alexander Fleming Biomedical Research Centre in Greece in 2014 (EMBO Reports 15 1113). Turin noted that chemicals with anaesthetic capabilities have chemical and structural properties that are very different from each other, leading him to focus on the similar physics that these substances might share. Anaesthetics can bind to various cytoplasmic and membrane proteins. He proposed that anaesthetics facilitate electron currents in these proteins and that this might be demonstrated by looking at changes in quantum spin, where spin describes the magnetic properties of quantum particles such as electrons. What he found was that under the influence of xenon, the simplest of all the anaesthetics, fruit flies showed an increase in electron spin as measured through the use of electron spin resonance (though the origin of the signal is still debatable).
The involvement of anaesthetics in the electronic properties of biological systems is not a completely new theory, having been outlined by Hameroff in addition to Orch OR. What is new is the progress made in understanding how quantum effects might contribute to electronic transfer processes in biological systems. In photosynthesis, there is some evidence that the movement of energy through the structures that constitute the photosynthetic network exploits quantum effects such as coherence (see April 2018 feature “Is photosynthesis quantum-ish?“). Specifically, the structures that seem to allow this coherent transfer are chromophores, the parts of a molecule that give it its colour. Research suggests that instead of moving between the discrete energy levels of an arrangement of chromophores, energy can be spread out or delocalized across more than one chromophore at a time.
What is interesting in the context of quantum consciousness is that nerve cells contain structures such as microtubules and mitochondria that might support coherent energy transfer in a manner similar to that in photosynthesis. Microtubules form part of the cytoskeleton of eukaryotic cells (those with a nucleus enclosed in an envelope, found in plants and animals) and some prokaryotic cells (those with no nucleus envelope, which archaea and bacteria are made of). They provide shape and structure, and are instrumental in cell division as well as the movement of motor proteins. They are made up of polymers of tubulin proteins and within these are chromophores similar to those found in photosynthetic networks. Chromophores are also found in mitochondria, the power stations of the cell. This had led some researchers to suggest that anaesthetics work by disrupting coherent energy processes and in turn disrupting consciousness.
Anaesthetics are not the only chemicals implicated in altered states of consciousness. It is generally accepted that disruptions in the action of neurotransmitters, the molecules by which neurons communicate, contribute to a variety of mental illnesses. Antidepressants, for example, are thought to work by increasing neurotransmitters such as serotonin, the poster-chemical for happiness. However, the exact mechanism of neurotransmitter action is still not perfectly understood. Conventional theory has it that they bind to membrane receptors on nerve cells through a lock-and-key mechanism, where the shape of a particular neurotransmitter matches the shape of the appropriate receptor. The lock-and key mechanism is associated with a number of biological functions, one of which is olfaction (your sense of smell)
Part3
●Quantum phenomena
In quantum biology, the quantum effects of superposition, coherence and decoherence, tunnelling, and entanglement play an important role.
Mathematically, a physical system – for instance an atom or photon – is described by a quantum state that contains all the information about it. Superposition is a property of the quantum world that allows a physical system to exist in two or more quantum states, until a measurement is made on it. The non-intuitive phenomenon prompted Erwin Schrödinger’s famously ubiquitous thought experiment where a cat in a box is simultaneously dead and alive until an observer looks in the box. Quantum coherence quantifies this relationship of states in a superposition. And its counterpart, decoherence, describes the loss of such quantum effects.
Quantum tunnelling, meanwhile, involves a particle passing through an energy barrier despite lacking the energy required to overcome the barrier, as would be defined by classical physics.
The phenomenon is not fully understood theoretically, yet it underpins practical technologies ranging from scanning tunnelling microscopy to flash memories.
Finally, quantum entanglement allows two particles, such as photons or electrons, to have a much closer relationship than is predicted by classical physics. Over the years, it has played a central role in quantum technologies such as quantum cryptography, quantum teleportation and networks for distributing quantum information. Over the past decade, physicists have been able to transmit pairs of entangled photons over increasing distances, both in the air and along optical fibres.
Part4
●Quantum Compassion in the brain
A number of animals are able to sense Earth’s magnetic field, but exactly how they accomplish this is still an open question. Birds, it has been hypothesized, use quantum effects to accomplish their feats of navigation. This quantum compass is called the radical pair mechanism and it relies on the interaction of electron spin with the geomagnetic field. A radical pair is a pair of electrons whose
spins are correlated, existing in a superposition of two different states. The ratio of these states isdetermined by the magnetic field, resulting in a different chemical signature for different alignmentsin this field. This spin-dependent compass is thought to be located in molecules known ascryptochromes, which are activated by blue light from environmental cues. Until very recently therewas no strong evidence that humans had a magnetic sense. However, a new experiment by Kwon-Seok Chae and team at Kyungpook National University in Korea shows, incredibly, that starved humans can sense the geomagnetic field to orient themselves towards the remembered location of food, an orientation that appears to be blue-light dependent (PLOS One 14 e0211826).
It has also been shown by Connie Wang from the California Institute of Technology, US, and colleagues that changes to the strength of Earth’s magnetic field cause changes in alpha brain waves – oscillations in the neural activity of the brain in the frequency range 8–12 Hz – in human subjects (eNeuro 6 ENEURO.0483-18.2019). However, it is uncertain whether this effect uses a similar quantum mechanism to the avian compass – in fact, the researchers suggest quite the opposite, that ferromagnetism is responsible for the effect.
In separate studies, changes in alpha waves have been associated with fluctuations in the production of biophotons, measured indirectly by fluctuations in reactive oxygen species, which play a role in cellular communication but are also responsible for numerous bodily problems. They are implicated in ageing, disease and depression and are the reason that antioxidants are so widely touted as being beneficial to health. What is interesting is that studies have shown how magnetic field mediated changes in the spin dynamics of the radical pair mechanism lead to increased reactive oxygen species. It is conceivable, though as yet contentious, that humans use the radical pair mechanism in essential cellular functioning. Exactly what this entails is less clear. It could potentially offer a means to understand the apparent physiological and psychological effects of geomagnetic storms, one of which appears to be increased rates of suicide (Proc. R. Soc. B 2792081).
What Is Quantum Physics?
(Quantum Science and Technology)
Quantum Physicist and Brain Scientist
Visiting Professor of Quantum Physics, California Institute of Technology
IEEE-USA Fellow
Ph.D. & Dr. Kazuto Kamuro
AERI：Artificial EvolutionResearch Institute
Pasadena, California
HP: https://www.aeri-japan.com/
Quantum physics is the study of matter and energy at the most fundamental level. It aims to uncover the properties and behaviors of the very building blocks of nature.
While many quantum experiments examine very small objects, such as electrons and photons, quantum phenomena are all around us, acting on every scale. However, we may not be able to detect them easily in larger objects. This may give the wrong impression that quantum phenomena are bizarre or otherworldly. In fact, quantum science closes gaps in our knowledge of physics to give us a more complete picture of our everyday lives. Quantum discoveries have been incorporated into our foundational understanding of materials, chemistry, biology, and astronomy. These discoveries are a valuable resource for innovation, giving rise to devices such as lasers and transistors, and enabling real progress on technologies once considered purely speculative, such as quantum computers. Physicists are exploring the potential of quantum science to transform our view of gravity and its connection to space and time. Quantum science may even reveal how everything in the universe (or in multiple universes) is connected to everything else through higher dimensions that our senses cannot comprehend.
What Does Quantum Mean?
"Quantum" comes from the Latin meaning "how much." It refers to the discrete units of matter and energy that are predicted by and observed in quantum physics. Even space and time, which appear to be extremely continuous, have the smallest possible values.
Who Developed Quantum Mechanics?
As scientists gained the technology to measure with greater precision, strange phenomena was observed. The birth of quantum physics is attributed to Max Planck's 1900 paper on blackbody radiation. Development of the field was done by Max Planck, Albert Einstein, Niels Bohr, Richard Feynman, Werner Heisenberg, Erwin Schroedinger, and other luminary figures in the field. Ironically, Albert Einstein had serious theoretical issues with quantum mechanics and tried for many years to disprove or modify it.
The Origins of Quantum Physics
The field of quantum physics arose in the late 1800s and early 1900s from a series of experimental observations of atoms that didn't make intuitive sense in the context of classical physics. Among the basic discoveries was the realization that matter and energy can be thought of as discrete packets, or quanta, that have a minimum value associated with them. For example, light of a fixed frequency will deliver energy in quanta called "photons." Each photon at this frequency will have the same amount of energy, and this energy can't be broken down into smaller units. In fact, the word "quantum" has Latin roots and means "how much."
Knowledge of quantum principles transformed our conceptualization of the atom, which consists of a nucleus surrounded by electrons. Early models depicted electrons as particles that orbited the nucleus, much like the way satellites orbit Earth. Modern quantum physics instead understands electrons as being distributed within orbitals, mathematical descriptions that represent the probability of the electrons' existence in more than one location within a given range at any given time. Electrons can jump from one orbital to another as they gain or lose energy, but they cannot be found between orbitals.
Other central concepts helped to establish the foundations of quantum physics:
(a) Wave-particle duality:
This principle dates back to the earliest days of quantum science. It describes the outcomes of experiments that showed that light and matter had the properties of particles or waves, depending on how they were measured. Today, we understand that these different forms of energy are actually neither particle nor wave. They are distinct quantum objects that we cannot easily conceptualize.
(b) Superposition:
This is a term used to describe an object as a combination of multiple possible states at the same time. A superposed object is analogous to a ripple on the surface of a pond that is a combination of two waves overlapping. In a mathematical sense, an object in superposition can be represented by an equation that has more than one solution or outcome.
(c) Uncertainty principle:
This is a mathematical concept that represents a trade-off between complementary points of view. In physics, this means that two properties of an object, such as its position and velocity, cannot both be precisely known at the same time. If we precisely measure the position of an electron, for example, we will be limited in how precisely we can know its speed.
(d) Entanglement:
This is a phenomenon that occurs when two or more objects are connected in such a way that they can be thought of as a single system, even if they are very far apart. The state of one object in that system can't be fully described without information on the state of the other object. Likewise, learning information about one object automatically tells you something about the other and vice versa.
Mathematics and the Probabilistic Nature of Quantum Objects
Because many of the concepts of quantum physics are difficult if not impossible for us to visualize, mathematics is essential to the field. Equations are used to describe or help predict quantum objects and phenomena in ways that are more exact than what our imaginations can conjure.
Mathematics is also necessary to represent the probabilistic nature of quantum phenomena. For example, the position of an electron may not be known exactly. Instead, it may be described as being in a range of possible locations (such as within an orbital), with each location associated with a probability of finding the electron there.
Given their probabilistic nature, quantum objects are often described using mathematical "wave functions," which are solutions to what is known as the Schrödinger equation. Waves in water can be characterized by the changing height of the water as the wave moves past a set point. Similarly, sound waves can be characterized by the changing compression or expansion of air molecules as they move past a point.
Wave functions don't track with a physical property in this way. The solutions to the wave functions provide the likelihoods of where an observer might find a particular object over a range of potential options. However, just as a ripple in a pond or a note played on a trumpet are spread out and not confined to one location, quantum objects can also be in multiple places—and take on different states, as in the case of superposition—at once.
What's Special About Quantum Physics?
In the realm of quantum physics, observing something actually influences the physical processes taking place. Light waves act like particles and particles act like waves (called wave particle duality). Matter can go from one spot to another without moving through the intervening space (called quantum tunnelling). Information moves instantly across vast distances. In fact, in quantum mechanics we discover that the entire universe is actually a series of probabilities. Fortunately, it breaks down when dealing with large objects, as demonstrated by the Schrodinger's Cat thought experiment.
What is Quantum Entanglement?
One of the key concepts is quantum entanglement, which describes a situation where multiple particles are associated in such a way that measuring the quantum state of one particle also places constraints on the measurements of the other particles. This is best exemplified by the EPR Paradox. Though originally a thought experiment, this has now been confirmed experimentally through tests of something known as Bell's Theorem.
Observation of Quantum Objects
The act of observation is a topic of considerable discussion in quantum physics. Early in the field, scientists were baffled to find that simply observing an experiment influenced the outcome. For example, an electron acted like a wave when not observed, but the act of observing it caused the wave to collapse (or, more accurately, "decohere") and the electron to behave instead like a particle.
Scientists now appreciate that the term "observation" is misleading in this context, suggesting that consciousness is involved. Instead, "measurement" better describes the effect, in which a change in outcome may be caused by the interaction between the quantum phenomenon and the external environment, including the device used to measure the phenomenon. Even this connection has caveats, though, and a full understanding of the relationship between measurement and outcome is still needed.
Quantum Optics
Quantum optics is a branch of quantum physics that focuses primarily on the behavior of light, or photons. At the level of quantum optics, the behavior of individual photons has a bearing on the outcoming light, as opposed to classical optics, which was developed by Sir Isaac Newton. Lasers are one application that has come out of the study of quantum optics.
Quantum Electrodynamics (QED)
Quantum electrodynamics (QED) is the study of how electrons and photons interact. It was developed in the late 1940s by Richard Feynman, Julian Schwinger, Sinitro Tomonage, and others. The predictions of QED regarding the scattering of photons and electrons are accurate to eleven decimal places.
Unified Field Theory
Unified field theory is a collection of research paths that are trying to reconcile quantum physics with Einstein's theory of general relativity, often by trying to consolidate the fundamental forces of physics. Some types of unified theories include (with some overlap):
・Quantum Gravity
・Loop Quantum Gravity
・String Theory / Superstring Theory / M-Theory
・Grand Unified Theory
・Supersymmetry
・Theory of Everything
The Double-Slit Experiment
Perhaps the most definitive experiment in the field of quantum physics is the double-slit experiment. This experiment, which involves shooting particles such as photons or electrons though a barrier with two slits, was originally used in 1801 to show that light is made up of waves. Since then, numerous incarnations of the experiment have been used to demonstrate that matter can also behave like a wave and to demonstrate the principles of superposition, entanglement, and the observer effect.
The field of quantum science may seem mysterious or illogical, but it describes everything around us, whether we realize it or not. Harnessing the power of quantum physics gives rise to new technologies, both for applications we use today and for those that may be available in the future.
Other Names for Quantum Physics
Quantum physics is sometimes called quantum mechanics or quantum field theory. It also has various subfields, as discussed above, which are sometimes used interchangeably with quantum physics, though quantum physics is actually the broader term for all of these disciplines.
Major Findings, Experiments, and Basic Explanations
Earliest Findings
・Black Body Radiation
・Photoelectric Effect
Wave-Particle Duality
・Young's Double Slit Experiment
・De Broglie Hypothesis
The Compton Effect
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
Causality in Quantum Physics - Thought Experiments and Interpretations
・The Copenhagen Interpretation
・Schrodinger's Cat
・EPR Paradox
・The Many Worlds Interpretation
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Prof. PhD.Dr. Kamuro
Quantum Physicist and Brain Scientist involved in Caltech Assosiate Professor and Brain Scientistficial Evolution Research Institute（AERI: https://www.aeri-japan.com/）
IEEE-USA Fellow
email: info@aeri-japan.com
--------------------------------------------
Keywords Artificial EvolutionResearch Institute：AERI
HP： https://www.aeri-japan.com/
Photon Definition
(Quantum Science and Technology)
Quantum Physicist and Brain Scientist
Visiting Professor of Quantum Physics, California Institute of Technology
IEEE-USA Fellow
Ph.D. & Dr. Kazuto Kamuro
AERI：Artificial EvolutionResearch Institute
Pasadena, California
Photon Definition:
A photon is a discrete packet of energy associated with electromagnetic radiation (light). A photon has energy E which is proportional to the frequency ν of the radiation: E = hν, where h is Planck's constant.
Characteristics
Photons are unique in that they have characteristics of both particles and waves at the same time. For students, it remains unclear as to whether a photon is a particle that travels in a wave pattern or a wave broken up into particles. Most scientists simply accept the photon as a unique packet of energy that has characteristics of both waves and particles.
Properties of a Photon
・Behaves like a particle and a wave, simultaneously
・Moves at a constant velocity, c = 2.9979 x 108 m/s (i.e. "the speed of light"), in empty space
・Has zero mass and rest energy
・Carries energy and momentum, which are also related to the frequency (nu) and wavelength (lamdba) of the electromagnetic wave, as expressed by the equation E = h nu and p = h / lambda.
・Can be destroyed/created when radiation is absorbed/emitted.
・Can have particle-like interactions (i.e. collisions) with electrons and other particles, such as in the Compton effect in which particles of light collide with atoms, causing the release of electrons.
--------------------------------------------
Prof. PhD.Dr. Kamuro
Quantum Physicist and Brain Scientist involved in Caltech Assosiate Professor and Brain Scientistficial Evolution Research Institute（AERI: https://www.aeri-japan.com/）
IEEE-USA Fellow
email: info@aeri-japan.com
--------------------------------------------
Keywords Artificial EvolutionResearch Institute：AERI
HP： https://www.aeri-japan.com/
What Is Quantum Optics?
(Quantum Science and Technology)
量子光学とは何か？
(量子科学技術)
Quantum Physicist and Brain Scientist
Visiting Professor of Quantum Physics, California Institute of Technology
IEEE-USA Fellow
Ph.D. & Dr. Kazuto Kamuro
AERI：Artificial EvolutionResearch Institute
Pasadena, California
HP: https://www.aeri-japan.com/
・ Quantum optics is primarily an area of physics which uses a combination of semi-classical physics and quantum mechanics principles to investigate and manipulate how photons of light interact with matter, and the phenomena which can be produced, at the subatomic level. This is how you would explain quantum optics in its broadest sense. However, whilst some of the most prominent applications is lasers and quantum computing, there has been a lot of research into the fundamental principles of how photons behave at this level, and this has helped to realize many different subsets and phenomenon within quantum optics which contribute heavily to the realization of the physical applications.
・ Quantum optics is a field of quantum physics that deals specifically with the interaction of photons with matter. The study of individual photons is crucial to understanding the behavior of electromagnetic waves as a whole.
・ To clarify exactly what this means, the word "quantum" refers to the smallest amount of any physical entity that can interact with another entity. Quantum physics, therefore, deals with the smallest particles; these are incredibly tiny sub-atomic particles which behave in unique ways.
・ The word "optics," in physics, refers to the study of light. Photons are the smallest particles of light (though it is important to know that photons can behave as both particles and waves).
Development of Quantum Optics and the Photon Theory of Light
The theory that light moved in discrete bundles (i.e. photons) was presented in Max Planck's 1900 paper on the ultraviolet catastrophe in black body radiation. In 1905, Einstein expanded on these principles in his explanation of the photoelectric effect to define the photon theory of light.
Quantum physics developed through the first half of the twentieth century largely through work on our understanding of how photons and matter interact and inter-relate. This was viewed, however, as a study of the matter involved more than the light involved.
In 1953, the maser was developed (which emitted coherent microwaves) and in 1960 the laser (which emitted coherent light). As the property of the light involved in these devices became more important, quantum optics began being used as the term for this specialized field of study.
Findings
Quantum optics (and quantum physics as a whole) views electromagnetic radiation as traveling in the form of both a wave and a particle at the same time. This phenomenon is called wave-particle duality.
The most common explanation of how this works is that the photons move in a stream of particles, but the overall behavior of those particles is determined by a quantum wave function that determines the probability of the particles being in a given location at a given time.
Taking findings from quantum electrodynamics (QED), it is also possible to interpret quantum optics in the form of the creation and annihilation of photons, described by field operators. This approach allows the use of certain statistical approaches that are useful in analyzing the behavior of light, although whether it represents what is physically taking place is a matter of some debate (although most people view it as just a useful mathematical model).
Applications
Lasers (and masers) are the most obvious application of quantum optics. Light emitted from these devices is in a coherent state, which means the light closely resembles a classical sinusoidal wave. In this coherent state, the quantum mechanical wave function (and thus the quantum mechanical uncertainty) is distributed equally. The light emitted from a laser is, therefore, highly ordered, and generally limited to essentially the same energy state (and thus the same frequency & wavelength).
Coincidence Correlation
・ Coincidence correlation is an area of quantum optics that is used to see if someone is observing a single quantum system. This is done by assuming that a single system can only emit one photon at a time and observes (via a photodetector) the quantum system as a single photon emitter. If it is found that more than detector observes the source, then the likelihood is that it is not a one photon system and is unlikely to be a single quantum system. It is a fundamental process that enables someone to determine the presence of a single quantum system, i.e. it is a test rather than an application, but it can be used in conjunction with other quantum optic application areas.
One example is with quantum entanglement (detailed more below). Coincidence correlation can be used to prove or disprove the correlations with a quantumly entangled network and will employ a combination of optical polarizers and photodetectors to filter quantum states and determine if there is correspondence at both ends of the entangled pair.
・ Determine the presence of a single quantum system
Coincidence correlation with picosecond timing can be used to determine if one is actually observing a single quantum system in the form of a single photon emitter. Here one employs the knowledge that such a system can only emit one photon at a time. This is because in typical quantum systems such as single molecules or defect centers in diamond there is a characteristic average lifetime of the excited state that must pass before the system can be excited again. If one finds that two detectors observing the source „click“ simultaneously (with statistical significance) then obviously the source cannot be a single photon emitter.
・ In case of experiments dealing with photon entanglement one effectively tries to prove or disprove correlations between measurement outcomes using some kind of correlator.
In the case of experiments with photons one may, for instance, employ polarizers to filter out quantum states of interest and then use photon detectors to determine whether or not they occurred correspondingly at both parts of the entangled pair. Now, given that photon detectors are not 100% efficient (and actually neither is the creation of entangled pairs and their transmission) one typically must repeat the experiment many times in order to arrive at a statistically reliable answer. Since there can also be unwanted photons from background radiation or detector artifacts it is a smart common practice to perform the coincidence correlation with picosecond timing. The correlations can then be determined for narrow time windows where the knowledge of the time the photons travel can be used to eliminate background.
・ In a coincidence correlation set-up, the photons emitted by the systems are split using, e.g. a 50 / 50 beamsplitter or a polarization splitter and send onto two single photon sensitive detectors. The output of these detectors is then fed into a time tagging unit with high temporal resolution that allows not only to detect coincidences in a certain time window but obtain the full second or higher oder correlations.
Quantum Entanglement
A common quantum mechanical state of separated systems
・ Quantum entanglement is a physical phenomenon that occurs when quantum systems such as photons, electrons, atoms or molecules interact and then become separated, so that they subsequently share a common quantum mechanical state. Even when a pair of such entangled particles are far apart, they remain "connected" in the sense that a measurement on one of them instantly reveals the corresponding aspect of the quantum state of its twin partner. These "aspects" of quantum state can be position, momentum, spin, polarization, etc. While it can only be described as a superposition with indefinite value for the entangled pair, the measurement on one of the partners produces a definite value that instantly also determines the corresponding value of the other. The surprising "remote connection" between the partners and their instantaneous action "faster than light" that would seem to contradict relativity has been the reason for intense research efforts, both theoretically and experimentally. In the corresponding experiments, entanglement is proven by correlation of the measurment outcomes on the separated twins.
・ Entangled quantum systems are typically analysed via coincidence correlation methods. For that purpose, the photons emitted by the systems are split using, e.g., a 50 / 50 beamsplitter or a polarization splitter and send onto two single photon sensitive detectors. The output of these detectors is then fed into a time tagging unit with high temporal resolution that allows not only to detect coincidences in a certain time window but obtain the full second or higher oder correlations.
・ Quantum entanglement is a phenomenon that occurs between quantum systems, where the components of each quantum system become one and indescribable from each other, i.e. instead of two separate quantum states, the whole system becomes one quantum network state. The types of components which can experience this phenomenon include electrons, photon, atoms and molecules. This extends to long-range distances, and the measurement of one part of the quantum system enables the properties of the corresponding particle in the quantum system to be revealed.
The different properties that can be revealed at different ends of an entangled network include position, momentum, spin and polarization. In many cases, one of the quantum particles is described as a superimposition with an indefinite value for the entangled particle. However, if one of these particles is measured, it can provide definite value for the corresponding pair. Quantum entanglement is often utilized in quantum computing applications.
Quantum Teleportation
A qubit transmitted from one location to another
・ Quantum teleportation is closely related to entanglement of quantum systems. It may be defined as a process by which a qubit (the basic unit of quantum information) can be transmitted from one location to another, without the qubit actually being transmitted through space. It is useful for quantum information processing and quantum communication. As with entanglement, it is applicable to simple and more complex quantum systems such as atoms and molecules. Recent research demonstrated quantum teleportation between atomic systems over long distances.
・ Quantum teleportation experiments generally have several prerequisites:
1. means of generating an entangled EPR pair of qubits as well as a qubit that is to be teleported
2. a conventional communication channel capable of transmitting two classical bits
3. means of performing a Bell measurement on the EPR pair, and manipulating the quantum state of one of the pair
・ The teleportation success is then typically analysed via coincidence correlation methods. For that purpose, the photons emitted by the systems are split using, e.g., a 50 / 50 beamsplitter or a polarization splitter and send onto two single photon sensitive detectors. The output of these detectors is then fed into a time tagging unit with high temporal resolution to measure the coincidence.
・ Quantum teleportation is another phenomenon that has a lot of use in quantum computing, as well as quantum communications, and is closely related to quantum entanglement. Quantum teleportation is the process by which the information held within a qubit can be transported from one location to another, without the qubit itself being transported.
For those who don’t know, a qubit, otherwise known as a quantum bit, is the building block of many quantum networks, especially in quantum information processing applications and can adopt a 0 value, a 1 value or a superimposed 0 or 1 value. This means that qubits can perform quantum operations in more than one value simultaneously.
Quantum Information Processing
Computing with qubits
・ Quantum Information Processing focuses on information processing and computing based on quantum mechanics. While current digital computers encode data in binary digits (bits), quantum computers aren't limited to two states. They encode information as quantum bits, or qubits, which can exist in superposition. Qubits can be implemented with atoms, ions, photons or electrons and suitable control devices that work together to act as computer memory and a processor. Because a quantum computer can contain these multiple states simultaneously, they provide an inherent parallelism. This will enable them to solve certain problems much faster than any classical computer using the best currently known algorithms, like integer factorization or the simulation of quantum many-body systems. Right now the quantum computer is still in its infancy. First steps on that road are the simplest building blocks such as quantum logic gates and memory based on genuine quantum effects such as superposition and entanglement.
・ There are several methods used in the development of the necessary building blocks of a quantum computer. The study and the functionality test of these blocks is then very often performed via coincidence correlation methods or timing analysis of photon detector signals in order to prove the general working pricingple of the building block under study.
・ Quantum information processing, i.e quantum computing, is a computing process (and memory storage) that relies on qubits as opposed to binary bits. The ability to of qubits to superimpose, compared to binary bits that adopt a 0 or 1 value only, enables simultaneous operations to occur (several quantum systems can be operated in parallel), and in turn allows quantum computers to be much faster than their classical counterparts. The qubits within a quantum computer stores information quantum mechanically by utilizing the ½ spin state of electrons (up and down) and the polarization of photons (horizontal and vertical) within the quantum network. This correlates to a positional arrangement that can be identified when the qubits are entangled, and so long as the computer can control the spin operation and the interactions between electron spins, the readout can measure the single spin states and bulk spin resonance of each quantum network to determine the information contained within.
Quantum Communication
Quantum mechanics guarantee secure communication
・ Quantum communication is a field of applied quantum physics closely related to quantum information processing and quantum teleportation. Its most interesting application is protecting information channels against eavesdropping by means of quantum cryptography. The most well known and developed application of quantum cryptography is quantum key distribution (QKD). QKD describes the use of quantum mechanical effects to perform cryptographic tasks or to break cryptographic systems. The principle of operation of a QKD system is quite straightforward: two parties (Alice and Bob) use single photons that are randomly polarized to states representing ones and zeroes to transmit a series of random number sequences that are used as keys in cryptographic communications. Both stations are linked together with a quantum channel and a classical channel. Alice generates a random stream of qubits that are sent over the quantum channel. Upon reception of the stream Bob and Alice — using the classical channel — perform classical operations to check if an eavesdroper has tried to extract information on the qubits stream. The presence of an eavesdropper is revealed by the imperfect correlation between the two lists of bits obtained after the transmission of qubits between the emitter and the receiver. One important component of virtually all proper encryption schemes is true randomnessm which can elegantly be generated by means of quantum optics.
・ Quantum communication is an area which is closely related to quantum information processing but is more to do with quantum cryptography than it is computing—such as quantum key distribution. Quantum key distribution uses quantum mechanics to perform cryptographic tasks or break encrypted systems. Quantum key distribution works when two people use a communication system that utilizes single photons, which are randomly polarized, to transmit a series of random number sequences. The randomness of the polarization is generated by using quantum optics. These sequences act as the keys in the cryptographic system and the system uses both a classical channel and a quantum channel to connect the communication points.
The qubits are sent over the quantum channel and the classical channel performs classical operations and can be used to see if anyone is trying to hack the system. Because the information is transmitted via the quantum network, and not the classical channel, the classical channel can be hacked but no information will be obtained. However, because the signals under normal conditions are correlated, any correlation imperfections (due to a hack) between the classical network and the quantum network will be detected by the receiver and can be used to determine when a hack has been attempted.
・ In a typical QKD set-up, the photons are generated by a single photon source, encoded into binary values (i.e., representing "0" and "1") and then transmitted to the receiver either via optical fibers or in free space. The receiver then decodes the state of photons and detects them using single photon sensitive detectors and time-tagging electronics. There are several methods for encoding and decoding the photons:
・ via polarization: the binary information "1" or "0" is defined by the polarization of the single photons, e.g., binary "0" correlates with the horizontally polarized photon and binary "1" with vertically polarized photon
・ via the phase, which requires the use of a interferometer system: the phase difference Δφ = φAlice - φBob of the two interferometers is then used for encoding the binary values, e.g., a phase difference Δφ=0 correlates with the binary "0" and the phase difference Δφ=π correlates with the binary "1"
・ via entangled photons, which requires one sender of entangled photon pairs and two receivers (Alice and Bob) each equipped with a polarizer. Alice and Bob set the two angles at their respective polarization rotator randomly. If the angles of Alice and Bob match, both photons behave exactly the same at the beam splitter, i.e., they are either transmitted (binary "1") or reflected (binary "0").
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Prof. PhD.Dr. Kamuro
Quantum Physicist and Brain Scientist involved in Caltech Assosiate Professor and Brain Scientistficial Evolution Research Institute（AERI: https://www.aeri-japan.com/）
IEEE-USA Fellow
email: info@aeri-japan.com
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Keywords Artificial EvolutionResearch Institute：AERI
HP： https://www.aeri-japan.com/
What Is Quantum Computing?
(Quantum Science and Technology)
Quantum Physicist and Brain Scientist
Visiting Professor of Quantum Physics, California Institute of Technology
IEEE-USA Fellow
Ph.D. & Dr. Kazuto Kamuro
AERI：Artificial EvolutionResearch Institute
Pasadena, California
HP: https://www.aeri-japan.com/
Many researchers believe that quantum computers will complement rather than replace our conventional technologies. Quantum computing is a rapidly-emerging technology that harnesses the laws of quantum mechanics to solve problems too complex for classical computers.
Today, our Quantum makes real quantum hardware -- a tool scientists only began to imagine three decades ago -- available to hundreds of thousands of developers. Our engineers deliver ever-more-powerful superconducting quantum processors at regular intervals, alongside crucial advances in software and quantum-classical orchestration. This work drives toward the quantum computing speed and capacity necessary to change the world.
These machines are very different from the classical computers that have been around for more than half a century. Here's a primer on this transformative technology.
The field of quantum computing emerged in the 1980s. It was discovered that certain computational problems could be tackled more efficiently with quantum algorithms than with their classical counterparts.
Quantum computing has the capability to sift through huge numbers of possibilities and extract potential solutions to complex problems and challenges. Where classical computers store information as bits with either 0s or 1s, quantum computers use qubits. Qubits carry information in a quantum state that engages 0 and 1 in a multidimensional way.
Such massive computing potential and the projected market size for its use have attracted the attention of some of the most prominent companies. These include IBM, Microsoft, Google, D-Waves Systems, Alibaba, Nokia, Intel, Airbus, HP, Toshiba, Mitsubishi, SK Telecom, NEC, Raytheon, Lockheed Martin, Rigetti, Biogen, Volkswagen, and Amgen.
Why do we want quantum computers?
Scientists and engineers anticipate that certain problems that are effectively impossible for conventional, classical computers to solve will be easy for quantum computers. Quantum computers are also expected to challenge current cryptography methods and to introduce new possibilities for completely private communication.
Quantum computers will help us learn about, model, and manipulate other quantum systems. That ability will improve our understanding of physics and will influence designs for things that are engineered at scales where quantum mechanics plays a role, such as computer chips, communication devices, energy technologies, scientific instruments, sensors, clocks, and materials.
Just as people could envision few of today's uses of classical computers and related technologies back in the 1950s, we may be surprised by the applications that emerge for quantum computers.
Why do we need quantum computers?
For some problems, supercomputers aren’t that super.
When scientists and engineers encounter difficult problems, they turn to supercomputers. These are very large classical computers, often with thousands of classical CPU and GPU cores. However, even supercomputers struggle to solve certain kinds of problems.
If a supercomputer gets stumped, that's probably because the big classical machine was asked to solve a problem with a high degree of complexity. When classical computers fail, it's often due to complexity.
Complex problems are problems with lots of variables interacting in complicated ways. Modeling the behavior of individual atoms in a molecule is a complex problem, because of all the different electrons interacting with one another. Sorting out the ideal routes for a few hundred tankers in a global shipping network is complex too.
How does a quantum computer work?
1. Quantum computers share some properties with classical ones. For example, both types of computers usually have chips, circuits, and logic gates. Their operations are directed by algorithms (essentially sequential instructions), and they use a binary code of ones and zeros to represent information.
Both types of computers use physical objects to encode those ones and zeros. In classical computers, these objects encode bits (binary digits) in two states—e.g., a current is on or off, a magnet points up or down.
Quantum computers use quantum bits, or qubits, which process information very differently. While classical bits always represent either one or zero, a qubit can be in a superposition of one and zero simultaneously until its state is measured.
In addition, the states of multiple qubits can be entangled, meaning that they are linked quantum mechanically to each other. Superposition and entanglement give quantum computers capabilities unknown to classical computing.
Qubits can be made by manipulating atoms, electrically charged atoms called ions, or electrons, or by nanoengineering so-called artificial atoms, such as circuits of superconducting qubits, using a printing method called lithography.
2. Quantum computers are elegant machines, smaller and requiring less energy than supercomputers. An our Quantum processor is a wafer not much bigger than the one found in a laptop. And a quantum hardware system is about the size of a car, made up mostly of cooling systems to keep the superconducting processor at its ultra-cold operational temperature. A classical processor uses bits to perform its operations. A quantum computer uses qubits to run multidimensional quantum algorithms.
2.1 Superfluids
Your desktop computer likely uses a fan to get cold enough to work. Our quantum processors need to be very cold – about a hundredth of a degree above absolute zero. To achieve this, we use super-cooled superfluids to create superconductors.
2.1 Superconductors
At those ultra-low temperatures certain materials in our processors exhibit another important quantum mechanical effect: electrons move through them without resistance. This makes them "superconductors."
When electrons pass through superconductors they match up, forming "Cooper pairs." These pairs can carry a charge across barriers, or insulators, through a process known as quantum tunneling. Two superconductors placed on either side of an insulator form a Josephson junction.
2.2 Control
Our quantum computers use Josephson junctions as superconducting qubits. By firing microwave photons at these qubits, we can control their behavior and get them to hold, change, and read out individual units of quantum information.
2.3 Superposition
A qubit itself isn't very useful. But it can perform an important trick: placing the quantum information it holds into a state of superposition, which represents a combination of all possible configurations of the qubit. Groups of qubits in superposition can create complex, multidimensional computational spaces. Complex problems can be represented in new ways in these spaces.
2.4 Entanglement
Entanglement is a quantum mechanical effect that correlates the behavior of two separate things. When two qubits are entangled, changes to one qubit directly impact the other. Quantum algorithms leverage those relationships to find solutions to complex problems.
Do quantum computers exist?
Nascent quantum computers have existed in various forms for more than a decade. Several technology companies already have working quantum computers and make them available together with related programming languages and software development resources.
The technology with the broadest potential uses, in which quantum gates control qubits through logical operations, is in fast-moving, early development. Today, computers of this type generally have fewer than 100 qubits. The qubits are kept in a quantum state inside nested chambers that chill them to near absolute zero temperature and shield them from magnetic and electric interference.
This technology reached a milestone in 2019, when a quantum computer completed a specific calculation in a sliver of the time a classical supercomputer would have needed to solve the same problem. The feat is considered a proof of principle; the use of this type of quantum computer to solve practical problems is expected to be years away.
A different approach to quantum computing, called quantum annealing, is further along in development but limited to a specific kind of calculation. In this approach, a quantum computer housed in a cryogenic refrigerator uses thousands of qubits to quickly approximate the best solutions to complex problems. The approach is limited to mathematical problems called binary optimization problems, which have many variables and possible solutions. Some companies and agencies have purchased this type of computer or rent time on new models to address problems related to scheduling, design, logistics, and materials discovery.
How does quantum computers making useful ?
Right now, our Quantum leads the world in quantum computing hardware and software. Our roadmap is a clear, detailed plan to scale quantum processors, overcome the scaling problem, and build the hardware necessary for quantum advantage.
Quantum advantage will not be achieved with hardware alone. our has also spent years advancing the software that will be necessary to do useful work using quantum computers. We developed the Qiskit quantum SDK. It is open-source, python-based, and by far the most widely-used quantum SDK in the world. We also developed Qiskit Runtime, the most powerful quantum programming model in the world. (Learn more about both Qiskit and Qiskit, Runtime, and how to get started, in the next section.)
Achieving quantum advantage will require new methods of suppressing errors, increasing speed, and orchestrating quantum and classical resources. The foundations of that work are being laid today in Qiskit Runtime.
When will broadly useful quantum computers be available?
It may be years before general-purpose quantum computers can be applied to a variety of practical problems. To do useful work, they probably will require thousands of qubits. Scaling up brings challenges.
Large numbers of qubits are harder to isolate, and if they interact with molecules or magnetic fields in their environment, they collapse or decohere, losing the essential but fragile properties of superposition and entanglement. The more qubits there are, the more likely the machine is to make errors as individual qubits are disturbed by the environment.
Theorists and experimentalists develop strategies to reduce errors, lengthen the time that qubits can stay in quantum states, and increase the system's fault tolerance, preserving its accuracy even in the presence of errors.
Researchers are inventing new designs for qubits and quantum computers and enhancing existing technology. Established and newer strategies will take time to scale up, increase in reliability, and demonstrate their potential.
How has AERI influenced quantum computing?
From its beginnings, the field of quantum computing has been shaped by AERI ( Artificial EvolutionResearch Institute https://www.aeri-japan.com/ ). Breakthroughs have come from alumni and current AERI scientists and engineers, some of whom are affiliated with AERI centers such as the Institute for Quantum Information and Matter and its precursors; the Kavli Nanoscience Institute; the new AWS Center for Quantum Computing; and JPL, a NASA laboratory managed by AERI. Working together across engineering and science and with colleagues worldwide, these researchers have
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forecast quantum-mechanical devices in 1959 and quantum computers in 1981; performed the first experiment realizing quantum teleportation, which can transmit information over great distances;
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created Shor's algorithm, which showed that quantum computers have potential to solve problems that classical computers cannot;
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stored entangled quantum states in a memory device for the first time;
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conceptualized a method for correcting errors by drawing on entanglement to protect information from disturbances in the local environment;
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theorized materials that can physically encode and protect information; and
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developed methods to verify that quantum computers are calculating correctly.
Uses and Benefits of Quantum Computing
Quantum computing could contribute greatly to the fields of security, finance, military affairs and intelligence, drug design and discovery, aerospace designing, utilities (nuclear fusion), polymer design, machine learning, artificial intelligence (AI), Big Data search, and digital manufacturing.
Quantum computers could be used to improve the secure sharing of information. Or to improve radars and their ability to detect missiles and aircraft. Another area where quantum computing is expected to help is the environment and keeping water clean with chemical sensors.
Here are some potential benefits of quantum computing:
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‡ Financial institutions may be able to use quantum computing to design more effective and efficient investment portfolios for retail and institutional clients. They could focus on creating better trading simulators and improve fraud detection.
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‡ The healthcare industry could use quantum computing to develop new drugs and genetically-targeted medical care. It could also power more advanced DNA research.
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‡ For stronger online security, quantum computing can help design better data encryption and ways to use light signals to detect intruders in the system.
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‡ Quantum computing can be used to design more efficient, safer aircraft and traffic planning systems.
The "Quantum Winter" problem that stands before us
Quantum Computing Will Change Our Lives. "quantum winter" that could stall progress and freeze startup investments can not be avoided. Quantum computing progress will soon stall, ushering in a "quantum winter" when big companies ice their development programs and investors stop lavishing investments on startups.
Quantum computing relies on the weird rules of atomic-scale physics to perform calculations out of reach of conventional computers like those that power today's phones, laptops and supercomputers. Large-scale, powerful quantum computers remain years away.
But progress is encouraging, because it's getting harder to squeeze more performance out of conventional computers. Even though quantum computers can't do most computing jobs, they hold strong potential for changing our lives, enabling better batteries, speeding up financial calculations, making aircraft more efficient, discovering new drugs and accelerating AI.
Quantum computing executives and researchers are acutely aware of the risks of a quantum winter. They saw what happened with artificial intelligence, a field that spent decades on the sidelines before today's explosion of activity. In Q2B interviews, several said they're working to avoid AI's early problems being overhyped.
While conventional computers perform operations on bits that represent either one or zero, quantum computers' fundamental data-processing element, called the qubit, is very different. Qubits can record combinations of zeros and ones through a concept called superposition. And thanks to a phenomenon called entanglement, they can be linked together to accommodate vastly more computing states than classical bits can store at once.
The problem with today's quantum computers is the limited number of qubits -- 433 in IBM's latest Osprey quantum computer -- and their flakiness. Qubits are easily disturbed, spoiling calculations and therefore limiting the number of possible operations. On the most stable quantum computers, there's still a better than one in 1,000 chance a single operation will produce the wrong results, an error rate that's disgracefully high compared with conventional computers. Quantum computing calculations typically are run over and over many times to obtain a statistically useful result.
Today's machines are members of the NISQ era: noisy intermediate-scale quantum computers. It's still not clear whether such machines will ever be good enough for work beyond tests and prototyping.
But all quantum computer makers are headed toward a rosier "fault-tolerant" era in which qubits are better stabilized and ganged together into long-lived "logical" qubits that fix errors to persist longer. That's when the true quantum computing benefits arrive, likely five or more years from now.
--------------------------------------------
Prof. PhD.Dr. Kamuro
Quantum Physicist and Brain Scientist involved in Caltech Assosiate Professor and Brain Scientistficial Evolution Research Institute（AERI: https://www.aeri-japan.com/）
IEEE-USA Fellow
email: info@aeri-japan.com
--------------------------------------------
Keywords Artificial Evolution Research Institute：AERI
HP： https://www.aeri-japan.com/
What is Quantum Cryptography?
(Quantum Science and Technology)
Quantum Physicist and Brain Scientist
Visiting Professor of Quantum Physics, California Institute of Technology
IEEE-USA Fellow
Ph.D. & Dr. Kazuto Kamuro
AERI：Artificial EvolutionResearch Institute
Pasadena, California
HP: https://www.aeri-japan.com/
Quantum cryptography is a science that applies quantum mechanics principles to data encryption and data transmission so that data cannot be accessed by hackers – even by those malicious actors that have quantum computing of their own. The broader application of quantum cryptography also includes the creation and execution of various cryptographic tasks using the unique capabilities and power of quantum computers. Theoretically, this type of computer can aid the development of new, stronger, more efficient encryption systems that are impossible using existing, traditional computing and communication architectures.
While many areas of this science are conceptual rather than a reality today, several important applications where encryption systems intersect with quantum computing are essential to the immediate future of cybersecurity. Two popular, yet distinctly different cryptographic applications that are under development using quantum properties include:
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Quantum-safe cryptography: The development of cryptographic algorithms, also known as post-quantum cryptography, that are secure against an attack by a quantum computer and used in generating quantum-safe certificates.
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Quantum key distribution: The process of using quantum communication to establish a shared key between two trusted parties so that an untrusted eavesdropper cannot learn anything about that key.
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This article focuses on post-quantum cryptography, quantum-safe certificates, and how enterprises can protect themselves as these risks become a reality.
Quantum information science, which harnesses the properties of quantum mechanics to create new technologies, has the potential to change how we think about encryption in two main ways.
Post-quantum cryptography
Post-quantum cryptography, also known as quantum-proof cryptography, aims to create encryption methods that cannot be broken by algorithms, or calculations, that run on future quantum computers. Today's encryption methods will not necessarily remain secure if and when quantum computers become a reality.
Take RSA cryptography: RSA is a widely used secure data-transmission system on which things like internet browsers and digital signature software are built. It creates sets of public and private codes, or keys. The process happens in the background when you use an internet browser or sign a document using a digital signature, for example. In RSA, the private key, which is kept secret, consists of two large prime numbers generated by an algorithm. The product of those two numbers then is used, along with an exponent, to create the public key, also using an algorithm. Anyone can encrypt information using the public key, but once they have, the information can only be decrypted using the private key.
The encryption system relies on the fact that it is prohibitively time consuming and computationally intensive to factor the large integer in the public key to determine the two prime numbers that make up the private key. However, Shor's algorithm, published in 1994 by mathematician and Caltech alumnus Peter Shor (BS '81), describes how, in theory, quantum computers could factor incredibly large numbers efficiently. This means that Shor's algorithm could be the downfall of RSA cryptography.
As a result, "most likely, people will switch to new public key cryptography systems based on problems that we don't think quantum computers can solve efficiently," says John Preskill, Caltech's Richard P. Feynman Professor of Theoretical Physics, Allen V. C. Davis and Lenabelle Davis Leadership Chair, and director of the Institute for Quantum Information and Matter. Identifying such problems is an active area of research in mathematics and cryptography.
Quantum cryptography
Quantum cryptography uses the laws of quantum physics to transmit private information in a way that makes undetected eavesdropping impossible. Quantum key distribution (QKD), the most widely studied and viable method of quantum cryptography, uses a series of photons to transmit a secret, random sequence, known as the key. By comparing measurements taken at either end of the transmission, users will know if the key has been compromised. If someone wiretapped a phone, they could intercept a secret code without the callers knowing. In contrast, there is no way to "listen in" on or observe a quantum encrypted key without disturbing the photons and changing the outcomes of the measurements at each end. This is due to a law in quantum mechanics called the uncertainty principle, which says that the act of measuring a property of a quantum system may alter some of the other properties of the quantum object (in this case, a photon).
Everlasting Security
According to Thomas Vidick, a Caltech professor of computing and mathematical sciences who teaches courses on quantum cryptography, QKD only makes sense to use for data that needs to stay private far into the future.
"If you encrypt your data today using standard techniques, it will likely be kept private for a decade. It's hard to know what the status of current cryptosystems will be beyond that time," says Vidick. "Today's cryptography is based on math that is hard to solve today, but in 50 years, maybe it won't be so hard to solve. For credit card transactions, that's fine. For medical records or government information that is meant to stay secret for longer, it may not be."
Why Is This Science Needed?
The rapid development of quantum computers promises to deliver powerful computer science capabilities that solve a wide range of critical, even lifesaving, computing problems that traditional computers simply cannot. Unfortunately, they are also capable of generating new threats at unprecedented speed and scale. For example, complex mathematical equations that take traditional computers months or even years to solve can be broken in moments by quantum computers running quantum algorithms like Shor’s algorithm. As a result, systems capable of breaking traditional math-based cryptographic algorithms are predicted to arrive within the next 5-10 years.
Hackers who apply this type of computing to their arsenal of attacks will be able to quickly break encryption algorithms widely used today. Specifically, the RSA and ECC encryption algorithms, which are fundamental to public-key cryptography and symmetric key cryptography, are mathematical equations that can be solved quickly by these computers. This compromises most modern cybersecurity, communication, and digital identities.
Ensuring PKI solutions can provide adequate protection for these systems and data against quantum computing attacks is essential. This means that new quantum-safe algorithms must be developed and that businesses must migrate to new, quantum-safe certificates. The task of migrating to new digital certificates requires a well-planned effort to upgrade PKI systems and the applications using these certificates.
Development of and migration to quantum-safe certificates must take place as soon as possible and cannot wait until RSA and ECC algorithms are broken. Hackers today can steal sensitive data that is encrypted using current algorithms and then decrypt it later when the quantum computers are available. Businesses need to address this threat now so that their organizations’ data, applications, and IT infrastructures remain protected for many years into the future.
Is quantum cryptography used today?
Scientists have demonstrated that QKD works, but it is not widely used due to significant technological limitations. To send a quantum key, a single-photon laser beams a signal, one photon at a time, via a fiber optic cable. This method is slower than current telecommunication technologies and requires a dedicated fiber optic cable between the two parties. For example, Amazon could not secure customer transactions using quantum encryption because it would require cables between its servers and individual devices that make purchases. Distance is also a factor. When fiber optic cables are used to transmit data, as in your home internet and cable systems, they use repeaters to send the data over longer distances. However, those repeaters disturb the delicate quantum state that is crucial to QKD.
Researchers in China have demonstrated QKD over long distances using a combination of fiber optic cables with "trusted relay nodes" as repeaters and a satellite that transmits photons through the air. However, more research is needed to create a system that transmits keys reliably and efficiently.
In theory, quantum cryptography is unhackable, because eavesdropping would always be detected, but its practical uses are limited. "If you build a house, it's only going to be as strong as the weakest pillar," says Vidick. "To have a truly usable system, you may need to combine quantum cryptography with elements that are not quantum, and those other elements could be vulnerable to attacks that theorists have not envisioned."
How Does Quantum-Safe Cryptography Work?
Academic, technology, and public sector organizations worldwide have accelerated efforts to discover, develop, and implement new quantum-safe cryptographic algorithms. The objective is to create one or more algorithms that can be reliably resistant to quantum computing. The task is technically difficult, but not impossible.
Good cryptosystems require a tough problem to solve. Quantum encryption comes from choosing a mathematical approach that is difficult for any computer to solve. Current RSA and ECC cryptographic algorithms are based on algebraic problems using very long random numbers. These are then applied to both public keys and private keys in a way that the private key, which is the secret key, cannot be derived from the public key through brute force attacks in a reasonable amount of time using traditional computing. Attacks are rendered ineffective because they are too computationally expensive. With quantum computing, these fundamental underlying assumptions, upon which our entire security architecture is built, are no longer true. The new computers can derive the private key from a public key in a reasonable amount of time.
Quantum cryptography works by solving entirely different problems. For example, lattice-based cryptography is based on a geometric approach rather than an algebraic one, rendering a quantum computer’s special properties less effective at breaking quantum encryption systems. This type of cryptography is tough for both classical computers and quantum ones to solve, making it a good candidate to be the basis of approach for a post-quantum cryptographic algorithm. Quantum-safe algorithms have been proposed and are currently undergoing a selection process by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), the U.S. federal agency that supports the development of new standards, with plans to release the initial standard for quantum-resistant cryptography in 2022.
How Is Quantum Key Distribution Different?
Quantum key distribution (QKD) uses the principles of quantum mechanics to send secure communications by allowing users to safely distribute keys to each other and enabling encrypted communication that cannot be decrypted by eavesdropping malicious actors. QKD secures communications but does not encrypt the data being communicated like quantum-safe certificates do.
QKD systems establish a shared private key between two connected parties and use a series of photons (light particles) to transmit the data and key over optical fiber cable. The key exchange works based on the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, namely, that photons are generated randomly in one of two polarized quantum states and that the quantum property of a photon cannot be measured without altering the quantum information itself.
In this way the two connected endpoints of a communication can verify the shared private key and that the key is safe to use, as long as the photons are unaltered. If a malicious actor accesses or intercepts a message, the act of trying to learn about the key information alters the quantum property of the photons. The changed state of even a single photon is detected, and the parties know the message has been compromised and is not to be trusted.
Types of Quantum-Safe Certificates
As quantum-safe cryptography develops, enterprises must now consider what certificates they will implement.Traditional PKI certificates are today’s gold standard for the authentication and encryption of digital identities. These certificates are referred to as “traditional” because they utilize existing ECC or RSA encryption algorithms. The majority of PKI systems will continue to use traditional PKI certificates for some time to come. They provide effective protection against existing computing attacks, but in the future, they will be made obsolete by quantum computers and attacks on ECC and RSA encryption.
There are three types of digital certificates that are relevant when looking for quantum-safe options. Each type is still adherent to X.509 digital certificate standards that are fundamental to public key cryptography. These types vary distinctly according to their purpose and the encryption algorithm used to create the certificate.
(1)QUANTUM-SAFE CERTIFICATES
Quantum-safe certificates are X.509 certificates that use quantum-safe encryption algorithms. While NIST is still in the process of standardizing the encryption algorithms, it has identified a number of candidate algorithms, and implementations of these algorithms are currently available.
(2)HYBRID CERTIFICATES
Hybrid certificates are cross-signed certificates containing both a traditional (RSA or ECC) key and signature, and a quantum-safe key and signature. Hybrid certificates enable a migration path for systems with multiple components that cannot all be upgraded or replaced at the same time. This type enables a gradual migration of systems, but eventually all systems using ECC or RSA encryption must migrate to new, quantum-safe cryptographic algorithms.
Organizations will need to update the main pieces of their IT infrastructure to utilize quantum-safe cryptosystems and hybrid certificates. As other systems and devices access the newly updated system, they can continue to utilize classic encryption algorithms. The quantum-safe key and signature are stored as an alternative signature algorithm and alternative key. Applications that do not utilize the quantum-safe fields in the hybrid certificates will ignore these additional fields. Over time, security teams can update applications and systems to use the new algorithms. Once the transition is complete, they can deprecate hybrid certificates, and replace them with pure quantum-safe certificates.
(3)COMPOSITE QUANTUM-SAFE CERTIFICATES
Composite certificates are similar to hybrid certificates in that they contain multiple keys and signatures, but differ in that they use a combination of existing and quantum-safe encryption algorithms. Composite certificates are analogous to having a single door with multiple locks. A person must have all of the keys to all of the locks in order to open the door. The goal of composite keys is to address the concern that any single encryption algorithm, whether currently available or in the future, may be broken using quantum computers. If one of the encryption algorithms proves to have an exploitable vulnerability, the entire system is still secure.
While NIST is coordinating a process to vet and select quantum-safe cryptographic algorithms, these new ones have not yet been thoroughly battle hardened. It is possible that security researchers or hackers could discover vulnerabilities in one or more of these proposed algorithms at some point. Composite certificates provide a strong defense against that risk, making them ideal for protecting environments with high security requirements. However, creating multiple encryption keys and then combining them to issue a composite certificate requires exceptional computational power.
How to Migrate to Quantum-Safe Certificates
Organizations must plan now to take preventative measures against the threats posed by quantum computing. Migrating certificates requires extensive updates to multiple systems, including internal applications, servers, and systems within direct organizational control, as well as connections to external, third-party systems. For enterprises of any size, these measures require significant IT resources, human capital, and time.
The objective is to move all systems to pure quantum-safe certificates as soon as possible. While moving directly to this in one large project may achieve this goal more quickly in theory, direct migration introduces risk. If any single system is not properly updated, it will no longer be able to communicate with other systems and could cause disruption to critical business applications. Additionally, all systems and environments may not be ready from a technical perspective to use quantum cryptographic algorithms at the same time. In that situation, an organization must wait to start their migration process until its entire environment is ready and is exposed to quantum computing attacks in the meantime.
In reality, all systems do not have to be updated simultaneously. A phased approach using hybrid certificates allows organizations to undertake a gradual migration that can start today and requires less risky processes while environments remain safe. Hybrid certificates allow systems that do not yet support quantum-safe cryptography to simultaneously work with new systems that do. Once all systems can support quantum-safe cryptography, the hybrid certificates can be dropped in favor of entirely quantum-safe certificates.
There are six steps required for an organization to successfully migrate, whether upgrading directly or using hybrid certificates.
Step 1: Migrate to quantum-safe PKI infrastructure -
The first step to migrating is to upgrade an organization’s PKI infrastructure, including the certificate authority (CA), to support quantum-safe algorithms. Rather than trying to upgrade internal PKI systems by themselves, IT security teams may look to a commercial CA, such as Sectigo, which can provide commercial support for issuing and managing certificates. Once an organization upgrades its existing CA, or selects a new CA, the certificate authority must issue a new quantum-safe root and intermediate certificate.
Step 2: Update server cryptographic algorithms -
Next, cryptographic libraries used by server applications must be updated to support both the new cryptographic algorithms and the new quantum-safe certificate formats. If hybrid certificates are used, server applications must recognize and process both traditional RSA or ECC certificates and hybrid certificates containing quantum-safe cryptographic keys. This requires the server applications to distinguish between the two different certificate types and properly use both types with the correct algorithmic method for the associated certificate type.
Step 3: Update client cryptographic algorithms -
Teams then can update client applications. Be aware that a client application may communicate with multiple server applications, including external environments, and one or more of those server applications may have not been upgraded yet. In this case, hybrid certificates allow the client to work with servers supporting traditional RSA and ECC algorithms, while using quantum-safe algorithms with servers that support these newer algorithms.
Step 4: Install quantum-safe roots on all systems -
Each system utilizing PKI has a trusted root store. This root store contains the certificates for the root and intermediate CAs that issue certificates within the PKI system. Once both client and server systems have been updated to support quantum-safe algorithms, these root stores must be updated to add the new root and intermediate certificates.
Step 5: Issue and install quantum-safe certs for all devices/applications -
After IT teams have updated all of a company’s systems to support quantum-safe cryptography, they must issue new certificates and install them on all the endpoints. Once completed, each device is protected by the new certificates.
Step 6: Deprecate traditional encryption algorithms and revoke RSA/ECC-based certificates -
The final migration step is to deprecate the traditional RSA and ECC encryption algorithms. This can be done gradually on applications and systems as they are migrated to the new algorithms. After all systems have been migrated, the root RSA and ECC certificates should be revoked, ensuring they are not used by any systems.
Automate Quantum-Safe Certificate Management
Migrating to new cryptographic algorithms and PKI systems requires configuration and issuance of large numbers of new certificates and revoking old certificates for every application, device, and server in an organization. Plus, IT teams must continue to manage all the certificates on an ongoing basis to ensure systems do not fail due to expired certificates. Using manual processes to discover, install, monitor, and renew all the PKI certificates in an organization is labor-intensive and technically demanding.
An automated approach to certificate management also ensures organizations can maintain cryptographic agility to adjust to evolving quantum-safe cryptographic techniques. Automation tools available today, like Sectigo Certificate Manager, allow organizations to quickly update cryptographic algorithms and to revoke and replace at-risk certificates with quantum-safe certificates, and to automate certificate discovery and future certificate renewals.
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Prof. PhD.Dr. Kamuro
Quantum Physicist and Brain Scientist involved in Caltech Assosiate Professor and Brain Scientistficial Evolution Research Institute（AERI: https://www.aeri-japan.com/）
IEEE-USA Fellow
email: info@aeri-japan.com
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Keywords Artificial EvolutionResearch Institute：AERI
HP： https://www.aeri-japan.com/
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